How ancient democracies worked?
In Cyprus, near ancient Paphos (the village of Kouklia), there are several interesting places, little known even to guides. For example, the excavated top of the Marchellos hill, where remains of the ancient city's wall have been preserved, and nearby — siege towers and embankments. Archaeologists found hundreds of Persian arrowheads and several helmets of the defenders of Paphos. All this is evidence of the Persian siege of Paphos during the uprising of the independent city-states of Cyprus against the Achaemenid Empire in 497 B.C. (approximately 2,500 years ago) under the leadership of Onesilus. But this was only one of the episodes of the fifty-year war of many scattered small Greek poleis against the giant Persian Empire, far superior in population, territory, and wealth.
What did the Persians want? “Water and earth.”
In the history of these wars there was everything — bribery by the Persians of votes in the Athenian democracy, the overthrow of the Athenian tyrant Hippias, who betrayed the Greeks and fled to the Persians, and the Persians demanded the restoration of his power. There were also attempts by tyrants and aristocracy of individual poleis to submit and surrender cities to the Persians, just to prevent the democratic party from gaining the upper hand. At first it seemed that there was no chance — the Persians broke through Thermopylae (see the 300 Spartans), Athens fell.
But in the scattered poleis the awareness of their national unity had already awakened. Mutual quarrels were forgotten and dozens of poleis concluded a military alliance. Coordinated tactics and high morale helped the Greeks to fight fantastically against the much superior forces of the enemy. Thus, in the Battle of Marathon 10,000 Greeks defeated 26,000 Persians, while the Greeks lost 192 men, and the Persians — 6,400.
The Greco-Persian wars ended with the victory of Greek civilization, the expansion of the Achaemenid Empire was stopped. These victories became a catalyst of Greek culture, instilled in them the awareness of their greatness, the triumph of freedom over slavery, the establishment of democracy in most poleis — and this led to that incredible rise of economy, trade, construction, thought and culture, which created a magnificent civilization — which then in turn became a model for Roman and Western culture, and therefore a part of each of us.
And of course, it is interesting what real ancient democracy looked like? The ancient Greeks were proud of their freedom, of the fact that they knew no other master over themselves except the law, recognized by the people. They obeyed this law, and not the whim or arbitrariness of one person, like the “barbarians,” “for among the barbarians all are slaves except one.” Ancient theory and practice of democracy differed significantly from the modern one and was much harsher and more stress-resistant—for example, 10 differences between ancient and modern democracies.
1
Strict limitation of holding any office. Any office could be held only for one year and never twice during one’s lifetime. Your five years of one president, and even two terms in a row — that would have been a humiliating dictatorship for the Greeks.
2
Censuses for voting. In order to obtain the right to vote, one had to complete military service, pass a public exam on the history and religion of the polis, and have a certain level of income. Slaves, migrants and paupers were not admitted to voting. The fact that now the right to vote is given to those who bring no benefit and do not defend their country with weapons in hand — this surely would have seemed to the ancient Greeks a mockery and a derision of democracy.
3
Legal killing of tyrants. It was legally permitted and encouraged to kill tyrants and usurpers rather than try to defeat them in elections. Athenian democracy itself began with the tyrant-slayers Harmodius and Aristogeiton, and they were highly honored in the ancient world. The philosopher Pittacus, in response to the question of what he had seen most astonishing in the world, joked thus:
“A tyrant in old age!” A tyrant in old age — and all the Greeks would burst out laughing together. We no longer understand this joke. Its essence was that democracy could survive only through the immediate killing of tyrants (tyrannicide) — and they never lived to old age. Now this motto, Sic semper tyrannis, has remained only in the USA on the coat of arms of the state of Virginia, more in the form of mockery.
4
A lot (random selection) instead of voting and election campaigns. The lot made it possible to select randomly, and random distribution among citizens who had passed the minimal census was critical: it prevented usurpation, avoid populism, involved many citizens in governance, and hindered corruption. In Athens of the 5th century B.C., out of 600 offices, 500 were chosen by lot, including judicial, legislative, and executive power. Police, communal services, judges, etc. were also chosen by lot. Aristotle called elections undemocratic and believed that democracy was the lot among the worthy. The Greeks would have unambiguously considered modern election campaigns as direct bribery or deception of the voters.
The ancient Greeks used the kleroterion — a device for drawing lots, which served as the primary technical instrument of Athenian democracy. The kleroterion was used to fill most public offices, in the elections to the city council and legislative assembly, as well as for appointing the composition of courts. The principle of the kleroterion is similar to the principle of a lottery machine.
5
Ostracism. A person could be removed from any office at any moment. At any time, a vote could be held to expel a politician who began to threaten the polis, its values, or had made a deal with the enemy. Ostracism served as prevention of tyranny and made it possible to immediately remove politicians who had sold out to the enemy, and not to wait for elections. To wait four years in order to re-elect a traitor of the country instead of immediately overthrowing him — that is stupid and absurd.
6
No apolitical idiots. The word “idiot” means “private,” one who lives by himself “outside politics.” Such behavior was considered abnormal and people became untouchable. A lack of interest in the life of the polis was regarded as a severe violation of social norms. It was believed that democracy could not be durable unless all its citizens were constantly engaged. To say “he is outside politics” was equivalent to the strongest insult and humiliation of anyone who was a citizen.
7
Public service — duty of free citizens, not a profession. A feature of ancient democracy was the absence of professional officials, but rather the involvement of a very wide circle of citizens. Public service was an analogue of military service for the polis. As a rule, every citizen once or twice during his life for a year would occupy some or other office. The ideal of democracy was the widest possible involvement of the middle class (citizens) in the direct governance of the polis, instead of transferring power to specialized appointed technocrats.
8
Duumvirate. This is when one office was held by two equal persons and they were forced to come to a compromise. Thus, in Ancient Rome consuls ruled for one year and in pairs, two elected rulers ruled Carthage, in Sparta two kings from different dynasties ruled.
9
Social mobility. Despite the favor shown to hereditary noble citizens, citizenship and the command of armies could be obtained by those from poor strata of the population and by those who had recently moved to the polis.
10
The ability to agree even if you are hostile in the face of a common enemy. The poleis defeated the Persian armada because they were able to reach a compromise despite their enmity. This is well illustrated by the famous phrase “Strike, but listen.” The Greek fleet was preparing for a decisive battle. The commander of the fleet, the Spartan Eurybiades, insisted on retreat, the Athenian admiral Themistocles strongly opposed him. Enraged, Eurybiades raised his hand against him. “Strike, but listen,” calmly replied Themistocles, convinced of his rightness. Eurybiades listened to him, accepted his plan, and the Persians were defeated. Since then, people repeat the words of the great Athenian when they, knowing that the truth is on their side, speak with convincing arguments, disputing some unreasonable demand or order.